第8章 对象的容纳

“如果一个程序只含有数量固定的对象，而且已知它们的存在时间，那么这个程序可以说是相当简单的。”

通常，我们的程序需要根据程序运行时才知道的一些标准创建新对象。若非程序正式运行，否则我们根本不知道自己到底需要多少数量的对象，甚至不知道它们的准确类型。为了满足常规编程的需要，我们要求能在任何时候、任何地点创建任意数量的对象。所以不可依赖一个已命名的句柄来容纳自己的每一个对象，就象下面这样：
MyObject myHandle;
因为根本不知道自己实际需要多少这样的东西。
为解决这个非常关键的问题，Java提供了容纳对象（或者对象的句柄）的多种方式。其中内建的类型是数组，我们之前已讨论过它，本章准备加深大家对它的认识。此外，Java的工具（实用程序）库提供了一些“集合类”（亦称作“容器类”，但该术语已由AWT使用，所以这里仍采用“集合”这一称呼）。利用这些集合类，我们可以容纳乃至操纵自己的对象。本章的剩余部分会就此进行详细讨论。

8.1 数组
对数组的大多数必要的介绍已在第4章的最后一节进行。通过那里的学习，大家已知道自己该如何定义及初始化一个数组。对象的容纳是本章的重点，而数组只是容纳对象的一种方式。但由于还有其他大量方法可容纳数组，所以是哪些地方使数组显得如此特别呢？
有两方面的问题将数组与其他集合类型区分开来：效率和类型。对于Java来说，为保存和访问一系列对象（实际是对象的句柄）数组，最有效的方法莫过于数组。数组实际代表一个简单的线性序列，它使得元素的访问速度非常快，但我们却要为这种速度付出代价：创建一个数组对象时，它的大小是固定的，而且不可在那个数组对象的“存在时间”内发生改变。可创建特定大小的一个数组，然后假如用光了存储空间，就再创建一个新数组，将所有句柄从旧数组移到新数组。这属于“矢量”（Vector）类的行为，本章稍后还会详细讨论它。然而，由于为这种大小的灵活性要付出较大的代价，所以我们认为矢量的效率并没有数组高。
C++的矢量类知道自己容纳的是什么类型的对象，但同Java的数组相比，它却有一个明显的缺点：C++矢量类的operator[]不能进行范围检查，所以很容易超出边界（然而，它可以查询vector有多大，而且at()方法确实能进行范围检查）。在Java中，无论使用的是数组还是集合，都会进行范围检查——若超过边界，就会获得一个RuntimeException（运行期违例）错误。正如大家在第9章会学到的那样，这类违例指出的是一个程序员错误，所以不需要在代码中检查它。在另一方面，由于C++的vector不进行范围检查，所以访问速度较快——在Java中，由于对数组和集合都要进行范围检查，所以对性能有一定的影响。
本章还要学习另外几种常见的集合类：Vector（矢量）、Stack（堆栈）以及Hashtable（散列表）。这些类都涉及对对象的处理——好象它们没有特定的类型。换言之，它们将其当作Object类型处理（Object类型是Java中所有类的“根”类）。从某个角度看，这种处理方法是非常合理的：我们仅需构建一个集合，然后任何Java对象都可以进入那个集合（除基本数据类型外——可用Java的基本类型封装类将其作为常数置入集合，或者将其封装到自己的类内，作为可以变化的值使用）。这再一次反映了数组优于常规集合：创建一个数组时，可令其容纳一种特定的类型。这意味着可进行编译期类型检查，预防自己设置了错误的类型，或者错误指定了准备提取的类型。当然，在编译期或者运行期，Java会防止我们将不当的消息发给一个对象。所以我们不必考虑自己的哪种做法更加危险，只要编译器能及时地指出错误，同时在运行期间加快速度，目的也就达到了。此外，用户很少会对一次违例事件感到非常惊讶的。
考虑到执行效率和类型检查，应尽可能地采用数组。然而，当我们试图解决一个更常规的问题时，数组的局限也可能显得非常明显。在研究过数组以后，本章剩余的部分将把重点放到Java提供的集合类身上。

8.1.1 数组和第一类对象
无论使用的数组属于什么类型，数组标识符实际都是指向真实对象的一个句柄。那些对象本身是在内存“堆”里创建的。堆对象既可“隐式”创建（即默认产生），亦可“显式”创建（即明确指定，用一个new表达式）。堆对象的一部分（实际是我们能访问的唯一字段或方法）是只读的length（长度）成员，它告诉我们那个数组对象里最多能容纳多少元素。对于数组对象，“[]”语法是我们能采用的唯一另类访问方法。
下面这个例子展示了对数组进行初始化的不同方式，以及如何将数组句柄分配给不同的数组对象。它也揭示出对象数组和基本数据类型数组在使用方法上几乎是完全一致的。唯一的差别在于对象数组容纳的是句柄，而基本数据类型数组容纳的是具体的数值（若在执行此程序时遇到困难，请参考第3章的“赋值”小节）：

//: ArraySize.java
// Initialization & re-assignment of arrays
package c08;

class Weeble {} // A small mythical creature

public class ArraySize {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // Arrays of objects:
    Weeble[] a; // Null handle
    Weeble[] b = new Weeble[5]; // Null handles
    Weeble[] c = new Weeble[4];
    for(int i = 0; i < c.length; i++)
      c[i] = new Weeble();
    Weeble[] d = {
      new Weeble(), new Weeble(), new Weeble()
    };
    // Compile error: variable a not initialized:
    //!System.out.println("a.length=" + a.length);
    System.out.println("b.length = " + b.length);
    // The handles inside the array are 
    // automatically initialized to null:
    for(int i = 0; i < b.length; i++)
      System.out.println("b[" + i + "]=" + b[i]);
    System.out.println("c.length = " + c.length);
    System.out.println("d.length = " + d.length);
    a = d;
    System.out.println("a.length = " + a.length);
    // Java 1.1 initialization syntax:
    a = new Weeble[] {
      new Weeble(), new Weeble()
    };
    System.out.println("a.length = " + a.length);

    // Arrays of primitives:
    int[] e; // Null handle
    int[] f = new int[5];
    int[] g = new int[4];
    for(int i = 0; i < g.length; i++)
      g[i] = i*i;
    int[] h = { 11, 47, 93 };
    // Compile error: variable e not initialized:
    //!System.out.println("e.length=" + e.length);
    System.out.println("f.length = " + f.length);
    // The primitives inside the array are
    // automatically initialized to zero:
    for(int i = 0; i < f.length; i++)
      System.out.println("f[" + i + "]=" + f[i]);
    System.out.println("g.length = " + g.length);
    System.out.println("h.length = " + h.length);
    e = h;
    System.out.println("e.length = " + e.length);
    // Java 1.1 initialization syntax:
    e = new int[] { 1, 2 };
    System.out.println("e.length = " + e.length);
  }
} ///:~

b.length = 5
b[0]=null
b[1]=null
b[2]=null
b[3]=null
b[4]=null
c.length = 4
d.length = 3
a.length = 3
a.length = 2
f.length = 5
f[0]=0
f[1]=0
f[2]=0
f[3]=0
f[4]=0
g.length = 4
h.length = 3
e.length = 3
e.length = 2

//: IceCream.java
// Returning arrays from methods

public class IceCream {
  static String[] flav = {
    "Chocolate", "Strawberry",
    "Vanilla Fudge Swirl", "Mint Chip",
    "Mocha Almond Fudge", "Rum Raisin",
    "Praline Cream", "Mud Pie" 
  };
  static String[] flavorSet(int n) {
    // Force it to be positive & within bounds:
    n = Math.abs(n) % (flav.length + 1);
    String[] results = new String[n];
    int[] picks = new int[n];
    for(int i = 0; i < picks.length; i++)
      picks[i] = -1;
    for(int i = 0; i < picks.length; i++) {
      retry:
      while(true) {
        int t =
          (int)(Math.random() * flav.length);
        for(int j = 0; j < i; j++)
          if(picks[j] == t) continue retry;
        picks[i] = t;
        results[i] = flav[t];
        break;
      }
    }
    return results;
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    for(int i = 0; i < 20; i++) {
      System.out.println(
        "flavorSet(" + i + ") = ");
      String[] fl = flavorSet(flav.length);
      for(int j = 0; j < fl.length; j++)
        System.out.println("\t" + fl[j]);
    }
  }
} ///:~

//: CatsAndDogs.java
// Simple collection example (Vector)
import java.util.*;

class Cat {
  private int catNumber;
  Cat(int i) {
    catNumber = i;
  }
  void print() {
    System.out.println("Cat #" + catNumber);
  }
}

class Dog {
  private int dogNumber;
  Dog(int i) {
    dogNumber = i;
  }
  void print() {
    System.out.println("Dog #" + dogNumber);
  }
}

public class CatsAndDogs {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Vector cats = new Vector();
    for(int i = 0; i < 7; i++)
      cats.addElement(new Cat(i));
    // Not a problem to add a dog to cats:
    cats.addElement(new Dog(7));
    for(int i = 0; i < cats.size(); i++)
      ((Cat)cats.elementAt(i)).print();
    // Dog is detected only at run-time
  }
} ///:~

//: WorksAnyway.java
// In special cases, things just seem
// to work correctly.
import java.util.*;

class Mouse {
  private int mouseNumber;
  Mouse(int i) {
    mouseNumber = i;
  }
  // Magic method:
  public String toString() {
    return "This is Mouse #" + mouseNumber;
  }
  void print(String msg) {
    if(msg != null) System.out.println(msg);
    System.out.println(
      "Mouse number " + mouseNumber);
  }
}

class MouseTrap {
  static void caughtYa(Object m) {
    Mouse mouse = (Mouse)m; // Cast from Object
    mouse.print("Caught one!");
  }
}

public class WorksAnyway {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Vector mice = new Vector();
    for(int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
      mice.addElement(new Mouse(i));
    for(int i = 0; i < mice.size(); i++) {
      // No cast necessary, automatic call
      // to Object.toString():
      System.out.println(
        "Free mouse: " + mice.elementAt(i));
      MouseTrap.caughtYa(mice.elementAt(i));
    }
  }
} ///:~

//: GopherVector.java
// A type-conscious Vector
import java.util.*;

class Gopher {
  private int gopherNumber;
  Gopher(int i) {
    gopherNumber = i;
  }
  void print(String msg) {
    if(msg != null) System.out.println(msg);
    System.out.println(
      "Gopher number " + gopherNumber);
  }
}

class GopherTrap {
  static void caughtYa(Gopher g) {
    g.print("Caught one!");
  }
}

class GopherVector {
  private Vector v = new Vector();
  public void addElement(Gopher m) {
    v.addElement(m);
  }
  public Gopher elementAt(int index) {
    return (Gopher)v.elementAt(index);
  }
  public int size() { return v.size(); }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    GopherVector gophers = new GopherVector();
    for(int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
      gophers.addElement(new Gopher(i));
    for(int i = 0; i < gophers.size(); i++)
      GopherTrap.caughtYa(gophers.elementAt(i));
  }
} ///:~

//: CatsAndDogs2.java
// Simple collection with Enumeration
import java.util.*;

class Cat2 {
  private int catNumber;
  Cat2(int i) {
    catNumber = i;
  }
  void print() {
    System.out.println("Cat number " +catNumber);
  }
}

class Dog2 {
  private int dogNumber;
  Dog2(int i) {
    dogNumber = i;
  }
  void print() {
    System.out.println("Dog number " +dogNumber);
  }
}

public class CatsAndDogs2 {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Vector cats = new Vector();
    for(int i = 0; i < 7; i++)
      cats.addElement(new Cat2(i));
    // Not a problem to add a dog to cats:
    cats.addElement(new Dog2(7));
    Enumeration e = cats.elements();
    while(e.hasMoreElements())
      ((Cat2)e.nextElement()).print();
    // Dog is detected only at run-time
  }
} ///:~

//: HamsterMaze.java
// Using an Enumeration
import java.util.*;

class Hamster {
  private int hamsterNumber;
  Hamster(int i) {
    hamsterNumber = i;
  }
  public String toString() {
    return "This is Hamster #" + hamsterNumber;
  }
}

class Printer {
  static void printAll(Enumeration e) {
    while(e.hasMoreElements())
      System.out.println(
        e.nextElement().toString());
  }
}

public class HamsterMaze {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Vector v = new Vector();
    for(int i = 0; i < 3; i++)
      v.addElement(new Hamster(i));
    Printer.printAll(v.elements());
  }
} ///:~

static void printAll(Enumeration e) {
  while(e.hasMoreElements())
    System.out.println(
      e.nextElement().toString());
}

//: CrashJava.java
// One way to crash Java
import java.util.*;

public class CrashJava {
  public String toString() {
    return "CrashJava address: " + this + "\n";
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Vector v = new Vector();
    for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
      v.addElement(new CrashJava());
    System.out.println(v);
  }
} ///:~

//: Bits.java
// Demonstration of BitSet
import java.util.*;

public class Bits {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Random rand = new Random();
    // Take the LSB of nextInt():
    byte bt = (byte)rand.nextInt();
    BitSet bb = new BitSet();
    for(int i = 7; i >=0; i--)
      if(((1 << i) &  bt) != 0)
        bb.set(i);
      else
        bb.clear(i);
    System.out.println("byte value: " + bt);
    printBitSet(bb);

    short st = (short)rand.nextInt();
    BitSet bs = new BitSet();
    for(int i = 15; i >=0; i--)
      if(((1 << i) &  st) != 0)
        bs.set(i);
      else
        bs.clear(i);
    System.out.println("short value: " + st);
    printBitSet(bs);

    int it = rand.nextInt();
    BitSet bi = new BitSet();
    for(int i = 31; i >=0; i--)
      if(((1 << i) &  it) != 0)
        bi.set(i);
      else
        bi.clear(i);
    System.out.println("int value: " + it);
    printBitSet(bi);

    // Test bitsets >= 64 bits:
    BitSet b127 = new BitSet();
    b127.set(127);
    System.out.println("set bit 127: " + b127);
    BitSet b255 = new BitSet(65);
    b255.set(255);
    System.out.println("set bit 255: " + b255);
    BitSet b1023 = new BitSet(512);
// Without the following, an exception is thrown
// in the Java 1.0 implementation of BitSet:
//    b1023.set(1023);
    b1023.set(1024);
    System.out.println("set bit 1023: " + b1023);
  }
  static void printBitSet(BitSet b) {
    System.out.println("bits: " + b);
    String bbits = new String();
    for(int j = 0; j < b.size() ; j++)
      bbits += (b.get(j) ? "1" : "0");
    System.out.println("bit pattern: " + bbits);
  }
} ///:~

//: Stacks.java
// Demonstration of Stack Class
import java.util.*;

public class Stacks {
  static String[] months = { 
    "January", "February", "March", "April",
    "May", "June", "July", "August", "September",
    "October", "November", "December" };
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Stack stk = new Stack();
    for(int i = 0; i < months.length; i++)
      stk.push(months[i] + " ");
    System.out.println("stk = " + stk);
    // Treating a stack as a Vector:
    stk.addElement("The last line");
    System.out.println(
      "element 5 = " + stk.elementAt(5));
    System.out.println("popping elements:");
    while(!stk.empty())
      System.out.println(stk.pop());
  }
} ///:~

//: AssocArray.java
// Simple version of a Dictionary
import java.util.*;

public class AssocArray extends Dictionary {
  private Vector keys = new Vector();
  private Vector values = new Vector();
  public int size() { return keys.size(); }
  public boolean isEmpty() {
    return keys.isEmpty();
  }
  public Object put(Object key, Object value) {
    keys.addElement(key);
    values.addElement(value);
    return key;
  }
  public Object get(Object key) {
    int index = keys.indexOf(key);
    // indexOf() Returns -1 if key not found:
    if(index == -1) return null;
    return values.elementAt(index);
  }
  public Object remove(Object key) {
    int index = keys.indexOf(key);
    if(index == -1) return null;
    keys.removeElementAt(index);
    Object returnval = values.elementAt(index);
    values.removeElementAt(index);
    return returnval;
  }
  public Enumeration keys() {
    return keys.elements();
  }
  public Enumeration elements() {
    return values.elements();
  }
  // Test it:
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    AssocArray aa = new AssocArray();
    for(char c = 'a'; c <= 'z'; c++)
      aa.put(String.valueOf(c),
             String.valueOf(c)
             .toUpperCase());
    char[] ca = { 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u' };
    for(int i = 0; i < ca.length; i++)
      System.out.println("Uppercase: " +
             aa.get(String.valueOf(ca[i])));
  }
} ///:~

//: Statistics.java
// Simple demonstration of Hashtable
import java.util.*;

class Counter { 
  int i = 1; 
  public String toString() { 
    return Integer.toString(i); 
  }
}

class Statistics {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Hashtable ht = new Hashtable();
    for(int i = 0; i < 10000; i++) {
      // Produce a number between 0 and 20:
      Integer r = 
        new Integer((int)(Math.random() * 20));
      if(ht.containsKey(r))
        ((Counter)ht.get(r)).i++;
      else
        ht.put(r, new Counter());
    }
    System.out.println(ht);
  }
} ///:~

{19=526, 18=533, 17=460, 16=513, 15=521, 14=495,
 13=512, 12=483, 11=488, 10=487, 9=514, 8=523,
 7=497, 6=487, 5=480, 4=489, 3=509, 2=503, 1=475,
 0=505}

//: SpringDetector.java
// Looks plausible, but doesn't work right.
import java.util.*;

class Groundhog {
  int ghNumber;
  Groundhog(int n) { ghNumber = n; }
}

class Prediction {
  boolean shadow = Math.random() > 0.5;
  public String toString() {
    if(shadow)
      return "Six more weeks of Winter!";
    else
      return "Early Spring!";
  }
}

public class SpringDetector {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Hashtable ht = new Hashtable();
    for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
      ht.put(new Groundhog(i), new Prediction());
    System.out.println("ht = " + ht + "\n");
    System.out.println(
      "Looking up prediction for groundhog #3:");
    Groundhog gh = new Groundhog(3);
    if(ht.containsKey(gh))
      System.out.println((Prediction)ht.get(gh));
  }
} ///:~

//: SpringDetector2.java
// If you create a class that's used as a key in
// a Hashtable, you must override hashCode()
// and equals().
import java.util.*;

class Groundhog2 {
  int ghNumber;
  Groundhog2(int n) { ghNumber = n; }
  public int hashCode() { return ghNumber; }
  public boolean equals(Object o) {
    return (o instanceof Groundhog2)
      && (ghNumber == ((Groundhog2)o).ghNumber);
  }
}

public class SpringDetector2 {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Hashtable ht = new Hashtable();
    for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
      ht.put(new Groundhog2(i),new Prediction());
    System.out.println("ht = " + ht + "\n");
    System.out.println(
      "Looking up prediction for groundhog #3:");
    Groundhog2 gh = new Groundhog2(3);
    if(ht.containsKey(gh))
      System.out.println((Prediction)ht.get(gh));
  }
} ///:~

//: Enumerators2.java
// Revisiting Enumerations
import java.util.*;

class PrintData {
  static void print(Enumeration e) {
    while(e.hasMoreElements())
      System.out.println(
        e.nextElement().toString());
  }
}

class Enumerators2 {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Vector v = new Vector();
    for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
      v.addElement(new Mouse(i));

    Hashtable h = new Hashtable();
    for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
      h.put(new Integer(i), new Hamster(i));

    System.out.println("Vector");
    PrintData.print(v.elements());
    System.out.println("Hashtable");
    PrintData.print(h.elements());
  }
} ///:~

//: Compare.java
// Interface for sorting callback:
package c08;

interface Compare {
  boolean lessThan(Object lhs, Object rhs);
  boolean lessThanOrEqual(Object lhs, Object rhs);
} ///:~

//: SortVector.java
// A generic sorting vector
package c08;
import java.util.*;

public class SortVector extends Vector {
  private Compare compare; // To hold the callback
  public SortVector(Compare comp) {
    compare = comp;
  }
  public void sort() {
    quickSort(0, size() - 1);
  }
  private void quickSort(int left, int right) {
    if(right > left) {
      Object o1 = elementAt(right);
      int i = left - 1;
      int j = right;
      while(true) {
        while(compare.lessThan(
              elementAt(++i), o1))
          ;
        while(j > 0)
          if(compare.lessThanOrEqual(
             elementAt(--j), o1))
            break; // out of while
        if(i >= j) break;
        swap(i, j);
      }
      swap(i , right);
      quickSort(left, i-1);
      quickSort(i+1, right);
    }
  }
  private void swap(int loc1, int loc2) {
    Object tmp = elementAt(loc1);
    setElementAt(elementAt(loc2), loc1);
    setElementAt(tmp, loc2);
  }
} ///:~

//: StringSortTest.java
// Testing the generic sorting Vector
package c08;
import java.util.*;

public class StringSortTest {
  static class StringCompare implements Compare {
    public boolean lessThan(Object l, Object r) {
      return ((String)l).toLowerCase().compareTo(
        ((String)r).toLowerCase()) < 0;
    }
    public boolean 
    lessThanOrEqual(Object l, Object r) {
      return ((String)l).toLowerCase().compareTo(
        ((String)r).toLowerCase()) <= 0;
    }
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    SortVector sv = 
      new SortVector(new StringCompare());
    sv.addElement("d");
    sv.addElement("A");
    sv.addElement("C");
    sv.addElement("c");
    sv.addElement("b");
    sv.addElement("B");
    sv.addElement("D");
    sv.addElement("a");
    sv.sort();
    Enumeration e = sv.elements();
    while(e.hasMoreElements())
      System.out.println(e.nextElement());
  }
} ///:~

//: StrSortVector.java
// Automatically sorted Vector that 
// accepts and produces only Strings
package c08;
import java.util.*;

public class StrSortVector {
  private SortVector v = new SortVector(
    // Anonymous inner class:
    new Compare() {
      public boolean 
      lessThan(Object l, Object r) {
        return 
          ((String)l).toLowerCase().compareTo(
          ((String)r).toLowerCase()) < 0;
      }
      public boolean 
      lessThanOrEqual(Object l, Object r) {
        return 
          ((String)l).toLowerCase().compareTo(
          ((String)r).toLowerCase()) <= 0;
      }
    }
  );
  private boolean sorted = false;
  public void addElement(String s) {
    v.addElement(s);
    sorted = false;
  }
  public String elementAt(int index) {
    if(!sorted) {
      v.sort();
      sorted = true;
    }
    return (String)v.elementAt(index);
  }
  public Enumeration elements() {
    if(!sorted) {
      v.sort();
      sorted = true;
    }
    return v.elements();
  }
  // Test it:
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    StrSortVector sv = new StrSortVector();
    sv.addElement("d");
    sv.addElement("A");
    sv.addElement("C");
    sv.addElement("c");
    sv.addElement("b");
    sv.addElement("B");
    sv.addElement("D");
    sv.addElement("a");
    Enumeration e = sv.elements();
    while(e.hasMoreElements())
      System.out.println(e.nextElement());
  }
} ///:~

//: SimpleCollection.java
// A simple example using the new Collections
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class SimpleCollection {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Collection c = new ArrayList();
    for(int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
      c.add(Integer.toString(i));
    Iterator it = c.iterator();
    while(it.hasNext())
      System.out.println(it.next());
  }
} ///:~

//: Collection1.java
// Things you can do with all Collections
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class Collection1 {
  // Fill with 'size' elements, start
  // counting at 'start':
  public static Collection 
  fill(Collection c, int start, int size) {
    for(int i = start; i < start + size; i++)
      c.add(Integer.toString(i));
    return c;
  }
  // Default to a "start" of 0:
  public static Collection 
  fill(Collection c, int size) {
    return fill(c, 0, size);
  }
  // Default to 10 elements:
  public static Collection fill(Collection c) {
    return fill(c, 0, 10);
  }
  // Create & upcast to Collection:
  public static Collection newCollection() {
    return fill(new ArrayList());
    // ArrayList is used for simplicity, but it's
    // only seen as a generic Collection 
    // everywhere else in the program.
  }
  // Fill a Collection with a range of values:
  public static Collection 
  newCollection(int start, int size) {
    return fill(new ArrayList(), start, size);
  }
  // Moving through a List with an iterator:
  public static void print(Collection c) {
    for(Iterator x = c.iterator(); x.hasNext();)
      System.out.print(x.next() + " ");
    System.out.println();
  }    
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Collection c = newCollection();
    c.add("ten");
    c.add("eleven");
    print(c);
    // Make an array from the List:
    Object[] array = c.toArray(); 
    // Make a String array from the List:
    String[] str = 
      (String[])c.toArray(new String[1]);
    // Find max and min elements; this means
    // different things depending on the way
    // the Comparable interface is implemented:
    System.out.println("Collections.max(c) = " +
      Collections.max(c));
    System.out.println("Collections.min(c) = " +
      Collections.min(c));
    // Add a Collection to another Collection
    c.addAll(newCollection());
    print(c);
    c.remove("3"); // Removes the first one
    print(c);
    c.remove("3"); // Removes the second one
    print(c);
    // Remove all components that are in the
    // argument collection:
    c.removeAll(newCollection());
    print(c);
    c.addAll(newCollection());
    print(c);
    // Is an element in this Collection?
    System.out.println(
      "c.contains(\"4\") = " + c.contains("4"));
    // Is a Collection in this Collection?
    System.out.println(
      "c.containsAll(newCollection()) = " + 
      c.containsAll(newCollection()));
    Collection c2 = newCollection(5, 3);
    // Keep all the elements that are in both
    // c and c2 (an intersection of sets):
    c.retainAll(c2);
    print(c);
    // Throw away all the elements in c that
    // also appear in c2:
    c.removeAll(c2);
    System.out.println("c.isEmpty() = " +
      c.isEmpty());
    c = newCollection();
    print(c);
    c.clear(); // Remove all elements
    System.out.println("after c.clear():");
    print(c);
  }
} ///:~

//: List1.java
// Things you can do with Lists
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class List1 {
  // Wrap Collection1.fill() for convenience:
  public static List fill(List a) {
    return (List)Collection1.fill(a);
  }
  // You can use an Iterator, just as with a
  // Collection, but you can also use random
  // access with get():
  public static void print(List a) {
    for(int i = 0; i < a.size(); i++)
      System.out.print(a.get(i) + " ");
    System.out.println();
  }
  static boolean b;
  static Object o;
  static int i;
  static Iterator it;
  static ListIterator lit;
  public static void basicTest(List a) {
    a.add(1, "x"); // Add at location 1
    a.add("x"); // Add at end
    // Add a collection:
    a.addAll(fill(new ArrayList()));
    // Add a collection starting at location 3:
    a.addAll(3, fill(new ArrayList())); 
    b = a.contains("1"); // Is it in there?
    // Is the entire collection in there?
    b = a.containsAll(fill(new ArrayList()));
    // Lists allow random access, which is cheap
    // for ArrayList, expensive for LinkedList:
    o = a.get(1); // Get object at location 1
    i = a.indexOf("1"); // Tell index of object
    // indexOf, starting search at location 2:
    i = a.indexOf("1", 2);
    b = a.isEmpty(); // Any elements inside?
    it = a.iterator(); // Ordinary Iterator
    lit = a.listIterator(); // ListIterator
    lit = a.listIterator(3); // Start at loc 3
    i = a.lastIndexOf("1"); // Last match 
    i = a.lastIndexOf("1", 2); // ...after loc 2
    a.remove(1); // Remove location 1
    a.remove("3"); // Remove this object
    a.set(1, "y"); // Set location 1 to "y"
    // Keep everything that's in the argument
    // (the intersection of the two sets):
    a.retainAll(fill(new ArrayList()));
    // Remove elements in this range:
    a.removeRange(0, 2);
    // Remove everything that's in the argument:
    a.removeAll(fill(new ArrayList()));
    i = a.size(); // How big is it?
    a.clear(); // Remove all elements
  }
  public static void iterMotion(List a) {
    ListIterator it = a.listIterator();
    b = it.hasNext();
    b = it.hasPrevious();
    o = it.next();
    i = it.nextIndex();
    o = it.previous();
    i = it.previousIndex();
  }
  public static void iterManipulation(List a) {
    ListIterator it = a.listIterator();
    it.add("47");
    // Must move to an element after add():
    it.next();
    // Remove the element that was just produced:
    it.remove(); 
    // Must move to an element after remove():
    it.next();
    // Change the element that was just produced:
    it.set("47");
  }
  public static void testVisual(List a) {
    print(a);
    List b = new ArrayList();
    fill(b);
    System.out.print("b = ");
    print(b);
    a.addAll(b);
    a.addAll(fill(new ArrayList()));
    print(a);
    // Shrink the list by removing all the 
    // elements beyond the first 1/2 of the list
    System.out.println(a.size());
    System.out.println(a.size()/2);
    a.removeRange(a.size()/2, a.size()/2 + 2);
    print(a);
    // Insert, remove, and replace elements
    // using a ListIterator:
    ListIterator x = a.listIterator(a.size()/2);
    x.add("one"); 
    print(a);
    System.out.println(x.next());
    x.remove();
    System.out.println(x.next());
    x.set("47");
    print(a);
    // Traverse the list backwards:
    x = a.listIterator(a.size());
    while(x.hasPrevious())
      System.out.print(x.previous() + " ");
    System.out.println();
    System.out.println("testVisual finished");
  }
  // There are some things that only
  // LinkedLists can do:
  public static void testLinkedList() {
    LinkedList ll = new LinkedList();
    Collection1.fill(ll, 5);
    print(ll);
    // Treat it like a stack, pushing:
    ll.addFirst("one");
    ll.addFirst("two");
    print(ll);
    // Like "peeking" at the top of a stack:
    System.out.println(ll.getFirst());
    // Like popping a stack:
    System.out.println(ll.removeFirst());
    System.out.println(ll.removeFirst());
    // Treat it like a queue, pulling elements
    // off the tail end:
    System.out.println(ll.removeLast());
    // With the above operations, it's a dequeue!
    print(ll);
  }
  public static void main(String args[]) {
    // Make and fill a new list each time:
    basicTest(fill(new LinkedList()));
    basicTest(fill(new ArrayList()));
    iterMotion(fill(new LinkedList()));
    iterMotion(fill(new ArrayList()));
    iterManipulation(fill(new LinkedList()));
    iterManipulation(fill(new ArrayList()));
    testVisual(fill(new LinkedList()));
    testLinkedList();
  }
} ///:~

//: Set1.java
// Things you can do with Sets
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class Set1 {
  public static void testVisual(Set a) {
    Collection1.fill(a);
    Collection1.fill(a);
    Collection1.fill(a);
    Collection1.print(a); // No duplicates!
    // Add another set to this one:
    a.addAll(a);
    a.add("one"); 
    a.add("one"); 
    a.add("one");
    Collection1.print(a);
    // Look something up:
    System.out.println("a.contains(\"one\"): " +
      a.contains("one"));
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    testVisual(new HashSet());
    testVisual(new TreeSet());
  }
} ///:~

//: Set2.java
// Putting your own type in a Set
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

class MyType implements Comparable {
  private int i;
  public MyType(int n) { i = n; }
  public boolean equals(Object o) {
    return 
      (o instanceof MyType) 
      && (i == ((MyType)o).i);
  }
  public int hashCode() { return i; }
  public String toString() { return i + " "; }
  public int compareTo(Object o) {
    int i2 = ((MyType) o).i;
    return (i2 < i ? -1 : (i2 == i ? 0 : 1));
  }
}

public class Set2 {
  public static Set fill(Set a, int size) {
    for(int i = 0; i < size; i++)
      a.add(new MyType(i));
    return a;
  }
  public static Set fill(Set a) {
    return fill(a, 10);
  }
  public static void test(Set a) {
    fill(a);
    fill(a); // Try to add duplicates
    fill(a);
    a.addAll(fill(new TreeSet()));
    System.out.println(a);
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    test(new HashSet());
    test(new TreeSet());
  }
} ///:~

//: Map1.java
// Things you can do with Maps
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class Map1 {
  public final static String[][] testData1 = {
    { "Happy", "Cheerful disposition" },
    { "Sleepy", "Prefers dark, quiet places" },
    { "Grumpy", "Needs to work on attitude" },
    { "Doc", "Fantasizes about advanced degree"},
    { "Dopey", "'A' for effort" },
    { "Sneezy", "Struggles with allergies" },
    { "Bashful", "Needs self-esteem workshop"},
  };
  public final static String[][] testData2 = {
    { "Belligerent", "Disruptive influence" },
    { "Lazy", "Motivational problems" },
    { "Comatose", "Excellent behavior" }
  };
  public static Map fill(Map m, Object[][] o) {
    for(int i = 0; i < o.length; i++)
      m.put(o[i][0], o[i][1]);
    return m;
  }
  // Producing a Set of the keys:
  public static void printKeys(Map m) {
    System.out.print("Size = " + m.size() +", ");
    System.out.print("Keys: ");
    Collection1.print(m.keySet());
  }
  // Producing a Collection of the values:
  public static void printValues(Map m) {
    System.out.print("Values: ");
    Collection1.print(m.values());
  }
  // Iterating through Map.Entry objects (pairs):
  public static void print(Map m) {
    Collection entries = m.entries();
    Iterator it = entries.iterator();
    while(it.hasNext()) {
      Map.Entry e = (Map.Entry)it.next();
      System.out.println("Key = " + e.getKey() +
        ", Value = " + e.getValue());
    }
  }
  public static void test(Map m) {
    fill(m, testData1);
    // Map has 'Set' behavior for keys:
    fill(m, testData1);
    printKeys(m);
    printValues(m);
    print(m);
    String key = testData1[4][0];
    String value = testData1[4][1];
    System.out.println("m.containsKey(\"" + key +
      "\"): " + m.containsKey(key));
    System.out.println("m.get(\"" + key + "\"): "
      + m.get(key));
    System.out.println("m.containsValue(\"" 
      + value + "\"): " + 
      m.containsValue(value)); 
    Map m2 = fill(new TreeMap(), testData2);
    m.putAll(m2);
    printKeys(m);
    m.remove(testData2[0][0]);
    printKeys(m);
    m.clear();
    System.out.println("m.isEmpty(): " 
      + m.isEmpty());
    fill(m, testData1);
    // Operations on the Set change the Map:
    m.keySet().removeAll(m.keySet());
    System.out.println("m.isEmpty(): " 
      + m.isEmpty());
  }
  public static void main(String args[]) {
    System.out.println("Testing HashMap");
    test(new HashMap());
    System.out.println("Testing TreeMap");
    test(new TreeMap());
  }
} ///:~

//: ListPerformance.java
// Demonstrates performance differences in Lists
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class ListPerformance {
  private static final int REPS = 100;
  private abstract static class Tester {
    String name;
    int size; // Test quantity
    Tester(String name, int size) { 
      this.name = name;
      this.size = size;
    }
    abstract void test(List a);
  }
  private static Tester[] tests = {
    new Tester("get", 300) { 
      void test(List a) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS; i++) {
          for(int j = 0; j < a.size(); j++)
            a.get(j);
        }
      }
    },
    new Tester("iteration", 300) { 
      void test(List a) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS; i++) {
          Iterator it = a.iterator();
          while(it.hasNext())
            it.next();
        }
      }
    },
    new Tester("insert", 1000) { 
      void test(List a) {
        int half = a.size()/2;
        String s = "test";
        ListIterator it = a.listIterator(half);
        for(int i = 0; i < size * 10; i++)
          it.add(s);
      }
    },
    new Tester("remove", 5000) { 
      void test(List a) {
        ListIterator it = a.listIterator(3);
        while(it.hasNext()) {
          it.next();
          it.remove();
        }
      }
    },
  };
  public static void test(List a) {
    // A trick to print out the class name:
    System.out.println("Testing " + 
      a.getClass().getName());
    for(int i = 0; i < tests.length; i++) {
      Collection1.fill(a, tests[i].size);
      System.out.print(tests[i].name);
      long t1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
      tests[i].test(a);
      long t2 = System.currentTimeMillis();
      System.out.println(": " + (t2 - t1));
    }
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    test(new ArrayList());
    test(new LinkedList());
  }
} ///:~

//: SetPerformance.java
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class SetPerformance {
  private static final int REPS = 200;
  private abstract static class Tester {
    String name;
    Tester(String name) { this.name = name; }
    abstract void test(Set s, int size);
  }
  private static Tester[] tests = {
    new Tester("add") { 
      void test(Set s, int size) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS; i++) {
          s.clear();
          Collection1.fill(s, size);
        }
      }
    },
    new Tester("contains") { 
      void test(Set s, int size) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS; i++)
          for(int j = 0; j < size; j++)
            s.contains(Integer.toString(j));
      }
    },
    new Tester("iteration") { 
      void test(Set s, int size) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS * 10; i++) {
          Iterator it = s.iterator();
          while(it.hasNext())
            it.next();
        }
      }
    },
  };
  public static void test(Set s, int size) {
    // A trick to print out the class name:
    System.out.println("Testing " + 
      s.getClass().getName() + " size " + size);
    Collection1.fill(s, size);
    for(int i = 0; i < tests.length; i++) {
      System.out.print(tests[i].name);
      long t1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
      tests[i].test(s, size);
      long t2 = System.currentTimeMillis();
      System.out.println(": " + 
        ((double)(t2 - t1)/(double)size));
    }
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // Small:
    test(new TreeSet(), 10);
    test(new HashSet(), 10);
    // Medium:
    test(new TreeSet(), 100);
    test(new HashSet(), 100);
    // Large:
    test(new HashSet(), 1000);
    test(new TreeSet(), 1000);
  }
} ///:~

//: MapPerformance.java
// Demonstrates performance differences in Maps
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class MapPerformance {
  private static final int REPS = 200;
  public static Map fill(Map m, int size) {
    for(int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
      String x = Integer.toString(i);
      m.put(x, x);
    }
    return m;
  }
  private abstract static class Tester {
    String name;
    Tester(String name) { this.name = name; }
    abstract void test(Map m, int size);
  }
  private static Tester[] tests = {
    new Tester("put") { 
      void test(Map m, int size) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS; i++) {
          m.clear();
          fill(m, size);
        }
      }
    },
    new Tester("get") { 
      void test(Map m, int size) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS; i++)
          for(int j = 0; j < size; j++)
            m.get(Integer.toString(j));
      }
    },
    new Tester("iteration") { 
      void test(Map m, int size) {
        for(int i = 0; i < REPS * 10; i++) {
          Iterator it = m.entries().iterator();
          while(it.hasNext())
            it.next();
        }
      }
    },
  };
  public static void test(Map m, int size) {
    // A trick to print out the class name:
    System.out.println("Testing " + 
      m.getClass().getName() + " size " + size);
    fill(m, size);
    for(int i = 0; i < tests.length; i++) {
      System.out.print(tests[i].name);
      long t1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
      tests[i].test(m, size);
      long t2 = System.currentTimeMillis();
      System.out.println(": " + 
        ((double)(t2 - t1)/(double)size));
    }
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    // Small:
    test(new Hashtable(), 10);
    test(new HashMap(), 10);
    test(new TreeMap(), 10);
    // Medium:
    test(new Hashtable(), 100);
    test(new HashMap(), 100);
    test(new TreeMap(), 100);
    // Large:
    test(new HashMap(), 1000);
    test(new Hashtable(), 1000);
    test(new TreeMap(), 1000);
  }
} ///:~

//: MapCreation.java
// Demonstrates time differences in Map creation
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class MapCreation {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    final long REPS = 100000;
    long t1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
    System.out.print("Hashtable");
    for(long i = 0; i < REPS; i++)
      new Hashtable();
    long t2 = System.currentTimeMillis();
    System.out.println(": " + (t2 - t1));
    t1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
    System.out.print("TreeMap");
    for(long i = 0; i < REPS; i++)
      new TreeMap();
    t2 = System.currentTimeMillis();
    System.out.println(": " + (t2 - t1));
    t1 = System.currentTimeMillis();
    System.out.print("HashMap");
    for(long i = 0; i < REPS; i++)
      new HashMap();
    t2 = System.currentTimeMillis();
    System.out.println(": " + (t2 - t1));
  }
} ///:~

//: Unsupported.java
// Sometimes methods defined in the Collection
// interfaces don't work!
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class Unsupported {
  private static String[] s = {
    "one", "two", "three", "four", "five",
    "six", "seven", "eight", "nine", "ten",
  };
  static List a = Arrays.toList(s);
  static List a2 = Arrays.toList(
    new String[] { s[3], s[4], s[5] });
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Collection1.print(a); // Iteration
    System.out.println(
      "a.contains(" + s[0] + ") = " + 
      a.contains(s[0]));
    System.out.println(
      "a.containsAll(a2) = " + 
      a.containsAll(a2));
    System.out.println("a.isEmpty() = " +
      a.isEmpty());
    System.out.println(
      "a.indexOf(" + s[5] + ") = " + 
      a.indexOf(s[5]));
    // Traverse backwards:
    ListIterator lit = a.listIterator(a.size());
    while(lit.hasPrevious())
      System.out.print(lit.previous());
    System.out.println();
    // Set the elements to different values:
    for(int i = 0; i < a.size(); i++)
      a.set(i, "47");
    Collection1.print(a);
    // Compiles, but won't run:
    lit.add("X"); // Unsupported operation
    a.clear(); // Unsupported
    a.add("eleven"); // Unsupported
    a.addAll(a2); // Unsupported
    a.retainAll(a2); // Unsupported
    a.remove(s[0]); // Unsupported
    a.removeAll(a2); // Unsupported
  }
} ///:~

//: Array1.java
// Testing the sorting & searching in Arrays
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class Array1 {
  static Random r = new Random();
  static String ssource = 
    "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ" +
    "abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz";
  static char[] src = ssource.toCharArray();
  // Create a random String
  public static String randString(int length) {
    char[] buf = new char[length];
    int rnd;
    for(int i = 0; i < length; i++) {
      rnd = Math.abs(r.nextInt()) % src.length;
      buf[i] = src[rnd];
    }
    return new String(buf);
  }
  // Create a random array of Strings:
  public static 
  String[] randStrings(int length, int size) {
    String[] s = new String[size];
    for(int i = 0; i < size; i++)
      s[i] = randString(length);
    return s;
  }
  public static void print(byte[] b) {
    for(int i = 0; i < b.length; i++)
      System.out.print(b[i] + " ");
    System.out.println();
  }
  public static void print(String[] s) {
    for(int i = 0; i < s.length; i++)
      System.out.print(s[i] + " ");
    System.out.println();
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    byte[] b = new byte[15];
    r.nextBytes(b); // Fill with random bytes
    print(b);
    Arrays.sort(b);
    print(b);
    int loc = Arrays.binarySearch(b, b[10]);
    System.out.println("Location of " + b[10] +
      " = " + loc);
    // Test String sort & search:
    String[] s = randStrings(4, 10);
    print(s);
    Arrays.sort(s);
    print(s);
    loc = Arrays.binarySearch(s, s[4]);
    System.out.println("Location of " + s[4] +
      " = " + loc);
  }
} ///:~

//: AlphaComp.java
// Using Comparator to perform an alphabetic sort
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class AlphaComp implements Comparator {
  public int compare(Object o1, Object o2) {
    // Assume it's used only for Strings...
    String s1 = ((String)o1).toLowerCase();
    String s2 = ((String)o2).toLowerCase();
    return s1.compareTo(s2);
  }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    String[] s = Array1.randStrings(4, 10);
    Array1.print(s);
    AlphaComp ac = new AlphaComp();
    Arrays.sort(s, ac);
    Array1.print(s);
    // Must use the Comparator to search, also:
    int loc = Arrays.binarySearch(s, s[3], ac);
    System.out.println("Location of " + s[3] +
     " = " + loc);
  }
} ///:~

//: CompClass.java
// A class that implements Comparable
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class CompClass implements Comparable {
  private int i;
  public CompClass(int ii) { i = ii; }
  public int compareTo(Object o) {
    // Implicitly tests for correct type:
    int argi = ((CompClass)o).i;
    if(i == argi) return 0;
    if(i < argi) return -1;
    return 1;
  }
  public static void print(Object[] a) {
    for(int i = 0; i < a.length; i++)
      System.out.print(a[i] + " ");
    System.out.println();
  }
  public String toString() { return i + ""; }
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    CompClass[] a = new CompClass[20];
    for(int i = 0; i < a.length; i++)
      a[i] = new CompClass(
        (int)(Math.random() *100));
    print(a);
    Arrays.sort(a);
    print(a);
    int loc = Arrays.binarySearch(a, a[3]);
    System.out.println("Location of " + a[3] +
     " = " + loc);
  }
} ///:~

//: ListSort.java
// Sorting and searching Lists with 'Collections'
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class ListSort {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    final int SZ = 20;
    // Using "natural comparison method":
    List a = new ArrayList();
    for(int i = 0; i < SZ; i++)
      a.add(new CompClass(
        (int)(Math.random() *100)));
    Collection1.print(a);
    Collections.sort(a);
    Collection1.print(a);
    Object find = a.get(SZ/2);
    int loc = Collections.binarySearch(a, find);
    System.out.println("Location of " + find +
     " = " + loc);
    // Using a Comparator:
    List b = new ArrayList();
    for(int i = 0; i < SZ; i++)
      b.add(Array1.randString(4));
    Collection1.print(b);
    AlphaComp ac = new AlphaComp();
    Collections.sort(b, ac);
    Collection1.print(b);
    find = b.get(SZ/2);
    // Must use the Comparator to search, also:
    loc = Collections.binarySearch(b, find, ac);
    System.out.println("Location of " + find +
     " = " + loc);
  }
} ///:~ 

//: ReadOnly.java
// Using the Collections.unmodifiable methods
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class ReadOnly {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Collection c = new ArrayList();
    Collection1.fill(c); // Insert useful data
    c = Collections.unmodifiableCollection(c);
    Collection1.print(c); // Reading is OK
    //! c.add("one"); // Can't change it
    
    List a = new ArrayList();
    Collection1.fill(a);
    a = Collections.unmodifiableList(a);
    ListIterator lit = a.listIterator();
    System.out.println(lit.next()); // Reading OK
    //! lit.add("one"); // Can't change it

    Set s = new HashSet();
    Collection1.fill(s);
    s = Collections.unmodifiableSet(s);
    Collection1.print(s); // Reading OK
    //! s.add("one"); // Can't change it
    
    Map m = new HashMap();
    Map1.fill(m, Map1.testData1);
    m = Collections.unmodifiableMap(m);
    Map1.print(m); // Reading OK
    //! m.put("Ralph", "Howdy!");
  }
} ///:~

//: Synchronization.java
// Using the Collections.synchronized methods
package c08.newcollections;
import java.util.*;

public class Synchronization {
  public static void main(String[] args) {
    Collection c = 
      Collections.synchronizedCollection(
        new ArrayList());
    List list = Collections.synchronizedList(
      new ArrayList());
    Set s = Collections.synchronizedSet(
      new HashSet());
    Map m = Collections.synchronizedMap(
      new HashMap());
  }
} ///:~

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